Definition and Examples of Substantives in Grammar

Definition and Examples of Substantives in Grammar In traditional grammar, a substantive is a word or a group of words that functions as a noun or noun phrase. In contemporary language studies, the more common term for a substantive is nominal. In some forms of construction grammar, substantive is used in a broad sense thats unrelated to the traditional meaning of substantive  (or noun). As Peter Koch observes in Between Word Formation and Meaning Change, It simply has the sense of constituted by one or more particular lexical or grammatical items (Morphology and Meaning, 2014). (See Hoffmans remarks in Examples and Observations below.) EtymologyFrom the Latin, substance Examples and Observations Doctors have asserted many times over the centuries that  walking is good for you, but  medical advice has never been one of the chief attractions of literature.(Rebecca Solnit, Wanderlust: A History of Walking. Penguin, 2001)The motion was eager, shy, exquisite, diffident, trusting: he saw all its meanings and knew that she would never stop gesturing within him, never; though a decree come between them, even death, her gestures would endure, cut into glass.(John Updike, Gesturing.  The Early Stories: 1953-1975. Random House, 2007)A [substantive is a] grammatical term that in the Middle Ages included both noun and adjective, but later meant noun exclusively. It is not usually found in later 20c English grammars. . . . However, the term has been used to refer to nouns and any other parts of speech serving as nouns (the substantive in English). The adjective local is used substantively in the sentence He had a drink at the local before going home (that is, the local public house) .(Sylvia Chalker and Tom McArthur, Substantive. The Oxford Companion to the English Language, Oxford University Press, 1992) A substantive noun or a substantive is . . . a name which can stand by itself, in distinction from an adjective noun or an adjective. It is the name of an object of thought, whether perceived by the senses or the understanding. . . . Substantive and noun are, in common use, convertible terms.(William Chauncey Fowler, English Grammar. Harper Brothers, 1855)Substantive Nouns and Adjectival Nouns- In Aristotelian, and scholastic, terminology, substance is more or less synonymous with entity. It is this by now almost obsolete sense of substance which gave  rise to the  term substantive for what, in modern  terminology, are normally called nouns.(John Lyons,  Natural Language and Universal Grammar: Essays in Linguistic Theory. Cambridge University Press, 1991)- The objects of our thoughts are either things, like the earth, the sun, water, wood, what is ordinarily called substance, or else are the manner or modification of things, like being round, being red, being hard, being lea rned, what is called accident. . . .It is this which has engendered the principal difference among the words which signify the objects of thought. For those words which signify substances have been called substantive nouns, and those which signify accidents, . . . have been called adjectival nouns.(Antoine Arnauld and Claude Lancelot, 1660, quoted by Roy Harris and Talbot J. Taylor, Landmarks In Linguistic Thought. Routledge, 1997) Substantives in Construction Grammar[C]hildren acquire language based on a specific lexical input. For example, they first acquire  fully substantive constructions  (i.e. structures in which all positions are filled such as I wanna ball). Only gradually do they then  schematize these constructions  by replacing a substantive lexical item by a variable slot (I wanna ball thus becomes I wanna X and X can then be filled by doll, apple, etc.).(Thomas Hoffman, English Relative Clauses and Construction Grammar.  Constructional Approaches to English Grammar, ed. by  Graeme Trousdale and Nikolas Gisborne. Mouton de Gruyter, 2008)Pronunciation: SUB-sten-tiv

Reporte consular para ciudadanía por derecho de sangre

Reporte consular para ciudadanà ­a por derecho de sangre El reporte consular de nacimiento en el extranjero prueba que una persona nacida fuera de Estados Unidos es ciudadana americana por derecho de sangre. Es el equivalente al acta o certificado de nacimiento que se emite a todas las personas que nacen en los EEUU. Y este reporte sirve para demostrar que se es ciudadano americano, para poder sacar el pasaporte y para obtener otros beneficios que corresponden por la ciudadanà ­a como Medicaid, Chip, etc en el caso de ir a vivir a USA. Datos bsicos de la ciudadanà ­a americana La nacionalidad de los Estados Unidos puede adquirirse por cinco caminos distintos. La mayorà ­a la adquieren por lo que se conoce derecho de suelo, pero este artà ­culo trata de un caso especial que tambià ©n es relativamente frecuente: la obtencià ³n de la ciudadanà ­a por derecho de sangre.   Es decir, un  menor adquire la ciudadanà ­a americana a pesar de haber nacido en otro paà ­s porque el padre, la madre o ambos son americanos en el momento en el que tuvo lugar su nacimiento. Quià ©n puede solicitar el reporte consular de nacimiento en el extranjero, cundo y cunto cuesta Para poder solicitr el reporte consular es necesario que la nacionalidad estadounidense cumpla todos los requisitos para transmitirse. No es suficiente que el pap o la mam sea ciudadano de los Estados Unidos. Los requisitos son distintos segà ºn el progenitor estadounidense sea el padre o la madre o ambos y tambià ©n de su estado civil. Si se cumple lo que establece la ley, entonces se podr solicitar el reporte consular. El padre o la madre que es ciudadano estadounidense (o ambos, si es el caso) son los autorizados para pedir el reporte consular. Tambià ©n puede hacerlo cualquier padre, si tiene una orden judicial en la que se le reconoce en exclusividad la guardia y custodia sobre el menor. Incluso es posible que el padre o la madre americana autoricen a otra persona a que realice la peticià ³n. En este caso, se necesitar una declaracià ³n jurada notarizada concediendo la autorizacià ³n. Adems, debe solicitarse antes de que el nià ±o o la nià ±a cumplan los 18 aà ±os de edad. Pero es muy recomendable que se haga cuanto antes, incluso inmediatamente despuà ©s del nacimiento. En todo caso, debe solicitarse antes de que el menor viaje a los Estados Unidos por primera vez. Esta gestià ³n tiene, en la actualidad, un costo de $100. Cà ³mo se tramita el Reporte Consular de Nacimiento en el Extranjero El primer paso es ir a la pgina de internet de la oficina consular ms cercana y seguir las instrucciones para hacer una cita para solicitar el reporte (CRBA, por sus iniciales en inglà ©s). A continuacià ³n hay que preparar y conseguir la documentacià ³n que se necesita para ir a la cita al consulado. Primero, hay que rellenar el formulario DS-2029. Es muy importante recordar no firmarlo, ya que ese es un paso que se debe hacer ante el oficial consular. Tampoco se debe rellenar los apartados 28/29 y 30, que lo har el cà ³nsul. Adems, es necesario aportar la siguiente documentacià ³n: 1. -El acta de nacimiento del nià ±o. Es fundamental que conste el nombre completo, correcto y debidamente deletreado del padre y de la madre (salvo en los casos de maternidad en solitario). 2.- Prueba de que el padre, la madre o ambos son ciudadanos americanos. La mejor forma de probarlo es con un pasaporte estadounidense en vigor. Otros documentos que se admiten son el acta de nacimiento, si ha nacido en Estados Unidos, o el certificado de naturalizacià ³n, si nacià ³ en otro paà ­s, emigrà ³ a EEUU y en algà ºn momento en el pasado obtuvo la ciudadanà ­a americana. 3.- Si se est casado, prueba del matrimonio. Asimismo, si se ha estado casado con anterioridad es necesario mostrar un documento que acredite cà ³mo acabà ³ el matrimonio anterior: viudedad, divorcio o anulacià ³n. 4.- Una declaracià ³n jurada por parte del progenitor estadounidense que se llama Affidavit of Parentage, Physical Presence and Support. En dicha declaracià ³n el padre o la madre juran que han vivido en Estados Unidos el tiempo necesario para poder transmitirle su nacionalidad al hijo o hija nacidos en el extranjero. Y es que no basta con ser americano, hay que haber vivido en USA cierto nà ºmero de aà ±os y poder demostrarlo. Tener presente que las reglas son diferentes segà ºn el caso. Se piden distintos aà ±os de residencia en EEUU segà ºn se trate de padre o madre o si estn solteros o casados. Adems, no basta con declarar que se ha vivido el tiempo requerido, hay que poder demostrarlo con documentacià ³n como por ejemplo: registros escolares, pasaportes anteriores, pago de impuestos, cotizaciones al Seguro Social, rà ©cords mà ©dicos, contratos o facturas a su nombre, rà ©cord militar, etc. Recibir el Certificado de Registro de Nacimiento en el Exterior Los consulados tramitan esta gestià ³n, pero el documento se emite en Estados Unidos. Por lo tanto hay que indicar dà ³nde se quiere recibir, dndose la opcià ³n de una direccià ³n en Estados Unidos, en el paà ­s de residencia (en algunos casos) o en la oficina consular. En otras palabras, el dà ­a de la entrevista no se saldr del consulado con el certificado en la mano. Consejos a tener en cuenta Los documentos deben ser originales o copias autentificadas por la autoridad que las emite con el sello oficial correspondiente. No sirven fotocopias ni tampoco copias notarizadas. Salvo casos muy excepcionales, siempre se devuelven esta documentacià ³n. Las reglas que regulan la transmisià ³n de la nacionalidad americana de padres a hijos cuando à ©stos nacen en el extranjero ha cambiado a lo largo de los aà ±os. En los casos de duda, hay siempre que verificar quà © ley aplicaba en el momento del nacimiento del hijo de un americano.   Adems, hay que tener en cuenta que aunque hoy en dà ­a es muy difà ­cil perder la nacionalidad americana, hasta hace recientemente poco tiempo eso no era asà ­. Para estos casos a veces es posible recuperar la ciudadanà ­a. Por à ºltimo, cuando un ciudadano americano no puede transmitir a su hijo la nacionalidad por no cumplir con el requisito de nà ºmero de aà ±os vividos en EEUU, a veces es posible tramitar para ese menor una naturalizacià ³n especial adquiriendo la ciudadanà ­a por los abuelos. Este es un artà ­culo informativo. No es asistencia legal para ningà ºn caso concreto.

Without modern technology, what did European people of all ages and Research Paper

Without modern technology, what did European people of all ages and class do for fun and entertainment during the Renaissance period - Research Paper Example It was believed that good health promotes learning, as the body and the soul is indivisible. This theory called for recreation and play to go hand-in-hand with studying and working. Recreation does not only mean playtime. Using the popular theory of the body and soul during the Renaissance, it can be assumed that recreation gives the soul and the body its strength as the exercises toughens the body and studying expands one’s knowledge. One cannot learn if all one does is work or study. The mind and the body may be nourished with wisdom and knowledge but the body is not prepared to face the battles and challenges that the everyday life gives. How can one study then if the body is weak? Thus, the need for a physically fit body and sound mind is important in living well during the Renaissance. This belief goes hand-in-hand with the importance of human life and the value placed on dignity and individuality. During the Renaissance, the distinction between children and adults were blurred. Children were believed to have no importance in the society because of their lack of strength and knowledge (Hughes p.9). Only the elite members of the society has the chance to take on their education at a young age, the rest were off to work. Just the same with work, recreation, playing games and chanting nursery rhymes were done by everyone, children and adults alike. Recreation was not only part of the people’s way of living, as part of their relaxation and spiritual renewal. Recreation became a part of education, too (Hinds p.60). Since it was believed that recreation is a way to nourish one’s spirit and body, it was included in the study program of young children. Recreation and pastime during the Renaissance ranged from animal sports to celebrating feasts. Though their activities differ, the period has shown many types of recreation and pastimes that were to strengthen the body, as well as, nourish the soul.

Diplomatic negotiation and conflict resolution in the Asian Essay

Diplomatic negotiation and conflict resolution in the Asian multilateral arena - Essay Example One of the first such associations to come into existence was the APEC (Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation), which still symbolizes the earliest notions of multilateralism in the region. Earlier, nations in Southeast Asia had formed the ASEAN (Association of South east Asian nations), which was however limited in terms of influence, thereby falling short of addressing economic and political issues from a broader Asian perspective (Kent Calder, 2008). During the recent years, political events in the former Soviet Union resulted in dramatic changes and the formation of new republics that made up the larger part of Central Asia. All these countries along with Russia and China as the other Asian partners make up the Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO). The amount of diplomacy that has gone into creating associations such as the APEC and SCO has been unprecedented and have thus helped bring cast and diverse parts of Asia into a common fold. Such associations have little to do with any kind of pedigree. Further, there are no weak instincts whatsoever that have resulted in any surrender of sovereignty on the part of member states in achieving the much need foothold in multilateralism (Stewart Patrick, 2002). Further, there have been several areas of friction among members states in such associations such as in the case of China and Taiwan. However, most of these gatherings have had to do a lot with economic ambitions and as such have endured the test of time. Taiwan and China, which are viewed as foes, continue to remain members of APEC on a common platform, which has been one of the ways of preventing both from indulging in diplomatic standoffs with each other. Although the final mandate of the APEC, ASEAN and SCO is largely limited to fighting terrorism and liberalization of trade, many have mutually created opportunities for bilateral negotiations at a lower level. This is also one of the reasons due to which countries try to resolve differences on

Explain how the introduction of a minimum wage may affect the level of Essay

Explain how the introduction of a minimum wage may affect the level of employment in theory. Examine and critically assess the e - Essay Example When the government enforces the laws of minimum wages, then the market forces are disturbed and equilibrium ceases to exist creating a gap between the demand and supply, which is of labor in this case. The disequilibrium in theory results in a rise in the supply of labor but the demand reduces as the labor is now more costly. However, the magnitude by which this disequilibrium is caused depends upon the circumstances prevailing in each economy and varies from country to country which we will see later. The diagram to the right shows the labor market curve. When the market forces were independent and not disturbed, the market was in equilibrium that is the supply and demand curve intersected at a point which is known as the equilibrium point represented as L0 with the quantity of labor and W0 as the equilibrium wage rate. However, the market forces were disturbed and the minimum wage rate was introduced with the representation of Wmin. This created disequilibrium in the economy and t he supply and demand curves no longer intersect at the equilibrium point. There now is a gap between the demand and supply of labor which is equivalent to L2-L1 and this is the excess labor which is not required. Since the employment has gone down from L0 to L1, this shows that the implementation of a minimum wage policy results in a decline in unemployment in an economy. Several economists and business owner, small businesses in particular, have voiced their concerns that minimum wages will result in a rise in unemployment. The worst aspect of this rise in unemployment is the fact that the people who will be most affected are the poor people who are not too educated. When the minimum wage policy will be implemented, the costs of hiring on part of the employers will rise and they will be forced to wither cut the current staff or freeze their hiring programs. They think that the poor and uneducated people will be most affected since the policy is affecting only them. The educated or wealthy people are already employed on jobs at higher management levels and their current wages or salaries are nowhere near the minimum wages. It is the lower level staff whose wages are affected and hence the employers will be forced to take action against these employees. However, a liberal think tank with the name of Economic Policy Institute have conducted a research and it has suggested that there is little evidence to suggest that there is more or less no difference in the employment levels between states in America in some industries even though there is a difference in the minimum wage rates among the states. This suggests that the impact of an introduction of minimum wage policy is dependent upon other factors as well that is industry to industry in this case. This suggests that a minimum wage policy may not have such a significant impact as economists have previously suggested. As a matter of fact, it may even increase employment in some cases because the workers were act ually being paid less than the worth of revenue and profits that they were contributing to the firm economically. The findings have gone as far as suggesting that rather than creating disequilibrium in the market as a result of minimum wages, it may even help the market to come nearer to the equilibrium level by forcing the employers to pay a fairer wage to the employees. Furthermore, the employers always have the choice of reducing the supervision, training, and recruitment costs in order to balance

Volcanic Ash Cloud Modelling Using Visual Basic Application

Volcanic Ash Cloud Modelling Using Visual Basic Application RESEARCH ARTICLE ABSTRACT Recently, the study of volcanic eruption and ash cloud dispersion has become important due to the severe risks and hazards associated with it. The negative impact it has on human livelihood, infrastructure, transportation, water supply, farming, and the environment and the environment as a whole needs serious attention. This has prompted many researchers to investigate the dynamics of volcanic ash clouds by utilizing an objective methodology, utilizing high-spatial determination pictures and complimentary ground based observation. These models have being instrumental in understanding past eruptions and also for future prediction and planning to mitigate it effects. The models for ash cloud usually require some parameters for their stimulation which would be depends on the type of model or software to be used. For the purpose of this article, Visual Basic Application (VBA) software has been used to study the 2014 Mount Mayon eruption. The codes were developed using vent coordinate, di ffusion coefficient, wind velocity, iteration and time step. The results from the simulation show the ash clouds dispersed in the NE direction. The results of the codes modelled showed diffusion and advection of ash plumes using a two dimensional array. Arcmap was used to output the results of the stimulation. Kernel density and spatial contour tools were also used to examine and interpretate the output of the simulation, showing the high risk of volcanic ash cloud in the Mount Mayon region. Visual Basic Application (VBA) was chosen for the study because it is simple, fast, convenient and affordable while proving to be equally accurate for modelling large particles. Nonetheless, the utilization of much more advanced models will provide more accurate results. Population growth and increase in urbanization in regions inclined to volcanic ash risks requires risk reduction and mitigation strategies. KEYWORDS: Volcanic Eruption, Mount Mayon, Hazard Modeling, Ash Cloud, Visual Basic Application. 1.0 INTRODUCTION The objective of natural hazards and risks assessment is to determine the extent and nature of risk in a particular area by evaluating potential hazards that together could harm people destroy properties, goods and services (UNISDR, 2009). Various studies have identified societys increasing vulnerability to disasters as a consequence of population expansion in hazardous areas and increasing economic and environmental strains (Rougier et al., 2013). The socio-economic and physical impact of volcanic ash on the environment is obviously massive. Studies and observations over the years have significantly enhanced our understanding as seen in the past 30 years (e.g., Soufrià ¨re Hills (Montserrat), 1995; Eyjafjallajà ¶kull (Iceland), 2010) (Vervaeck, 2012). The current effects that are associated with the volcano eruption have made the study of volcanic ash multidisciplinary. The negative impacts on human livelihood, infrastructure, transportation, power supply, agriculture, water and t he environment has caused tremendous damages. In order to minimize risk in highly affected areas and improve on hazard assessment, there is the need to use effective modelling tools to gather information on key risk indicators in ash dispersion. Successful displaying devices for anticipating ash remains scattering and transport can significantly add to hazard assessment and mitigation of risk in exceptionally influenced regions (Andreastuti, Alloway Smith, 2000). This aim of the study is to review the formation, movement and effects of the 2014 Mount Mayon eruption. The Visual Basic Application (VBA) software has been used for the modelling of ash cloud in the study area. The codes developed using input parameters seeks to demonstrate the possible pattern of the ash cloud dispersion with likely solutions. 1.1 STUDY AREA. Mount Mayon (13 °15à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ²24à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ³N 123 °41à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ²6à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ³E) is an active stratovolcano in the province of Albay in Bicol Region, on the island of Luzon in the Philippines. Renowned as the perfect cone because of its symmetric conical shape, the volcano and its surrounding landscape was declared a national park on July 20, 1938, the first in the nation. Mayon is the main landmark and highest point of the province of Albay and the whole Bicol Region in the Philippines, rising 2,462 metres (8,077 ft.) from the shores of the Albay Gulf about 10 kilometres (6.2 mi) away. The volcano is geographically shared by the eight cities and municipalities of Legazpi, Daraga, Camalig, Guinobatan, Ligao, Tabaco, Malilipot and Santo Domingo (clockwise from Legazpi), which divide the cone like slices of a pie when viewed from above. Historically the Mt. Mayon region of the Philippines has also been particularly hard hit by lahars because of volcanic erupt ions that produce ash deposits on steep volcanic slopes which may later become mobilized by heavy cyclonic rains (Orense 2007). Geologically, Mount Mayon rock type is Basalt to Olivine-bearing Pyroxene Andesite and Bicol Volcanic Chain tectonic setting. Mayon is the most active volcano in the Philippines and it is constantly degassing and has erupted violently 54 times in the last 400 years (Ramos-Villarta et al. 1985). Upper slopes are quite steep while slope angle diminishes in a very regular way with descent to sea level (Fano et al. 2007). Most eruptions involve large ashcloud discharges, though pyroclastic and lava flows are also common, and magma composition is basaltic to olivine-bearing pyroxene andesite. Figure1: Map of study area, Mount Mayon; Source (Google maps) 2. COMPREHENSIVE REVIEW OF THE RESEARCH LITERATURE 2.1 INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW The formation of volcanic ash is initiated by volcanic eruption events. Ash particle comprises of various sizes, elevation, and distances which disseminate into airspace. Ash cloud generates from a partial or complete eruption process (Cas Wright, 1987 and move rapidly with speed of 10-65m/s, reaching high temperature of between 100 to 800oC (Blong, 1984) (Figure 2). Moreover, vast scale effects are related with volcanic ash cloud dispersion. Therefore, the assessment of volcanic ash hazards is essential in the socio-economic, scientific, and political affairs of any society more importantly in a region with dense population. The rise in population and increase in urbanization of areas prone to volcanic ash hazards demand the invention and application of suitable measures. Risk assessment and mitigation strategies must be enforced if major eruption is to be prevented (Baxter et al., 2008). Figure 2: Mount Mayon 2014 ash cloud dispersion; Source google (Google images). 2.2.1 BACKGROUND TO VOLCANIC ASH Volcanic ash is produced during volatile volcanic eruptions, phreatomagmatic eruptions and movement in pyroclastic density currents. Explosive eruptions occur when magma decompresses as it rises, allowing dissolved volatiles to resolve into gas bubbles. Remote sensing results (Rose et al., 2000) and distal ash sampling studies (Durant et al., 20 09) strongly suggest that both à ¯Ã‚ ¬Ã‚ ne and very à ¯Ã‚ ¬Ã‚ ne ash mostly fall within a day of their eruption, much faster than à ¯Ã‚ ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å¡uid dynamics modeling suggests. Volcanic ash particles less than 2mm are pyroclast and particles greater than 2mm are lapilli. Regardless of the process of formation, volcanic ash are produced and determined by various factors such as particle size distribution, wind velocity, magma fragmentation and magma discharge. Altitude of 20-50km characterizes turbulent jets of explosive volcanic eruptions which convey ash and gas mixtures into the atmosphere (Carazzo Jellinek, 2012). Particles aggregati on is presumed to increase of fine ash fallout whereas sedimentation of pumice and ash particles is controlled by their separate settling velocities (Rose Durant, 2011). Combined studies have shown that volcanic cloud ash mass decreases by an order of magnitude in 24 h (Rose et al., 2000).This rapid fallout of very à ¯Ã‚ ¬Ã‚ ne ash creates distal mass deposition maxima in tephra deposits at distances several 100s of km downwind(Brazier et al., 1983; Durant and Rose,). The distal ash sedimentation process is poorly understood but is clearly tied to meteorological processes that promote aggregation, e.g., hydrometeor formation, and inà ¯Ã‚ ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å¡uence cloud dynamics (Durant et al., 2009). 2.2.2 VOLCANIC ASH EFFECTS 2.2.2.1 Effects on Water Supplies Effects of volcanic ash on water supplies have been critically severe that it makes livelihood unbearable. Studies describing these impacts are described fully in Stewart et al. (2006). Effects include physical blockages of intake structures by ash and damage due to abrasion or corrosion of equipment. The major public health concerns are thought to be the potential for outbreaks of waterborne infectious diseases due to the inhibition of disinfection by high levels of turbidity, and elevated concentrations of fluoride increasing risks of dental and skeletal fluorosis. Physical impacts of ash and problems due to high levels of acidity, turbidity and fluoride are well-documented; however, little attention has been paid to the other soluble components of volcanic ashfall and their potential consequences for water supplies. Water usage can be expected to increase significantly as affected communities begin cleanup operations (Johnston, 1997b; Johnston et al., 2004). 2.2.2.2 Effects on Agricultural Activities Volcanic ash has a massive negative effect on farms since agricultural activities depend greatly on natural and irrigation means of water supply. Some farms are supplied by district or regional water supply schemes. Reported impacts on water supply schemes include (Johnston et al., 2004) suspended ash blocking intake filters, particularly for river-fed water supplies. This has put increasing pressure on water resources, especially for irrigation and stock water, requiring that the resource be actively managed. The uncommon unsettled climate and atmosphere at mid-scope in 1816 and 1817 had major financial effects, especially as far as a poor yield of horticulture creation, lack of healthy sustenance and considerably an expanded potential for infections and plagues (Trigo et al., 2009). 2.2.2.3 Effects on Infrastructure About nine percent of the worlds population lives within 100 km of a historically active volcano (Horwell and Baxter, 2006). This percentage will probably increase due to higher rates of population growth in many countries like Colombia, Ecuador and the Philippines that are highly volcanically active. Even though volcanic ash rarely endanger human life directly, it negative effects on critical infrastructure services such as electricity and water supplies, health facilities, transport routes, aviation, buildings and primary production, can lead to significant societal impacts (Horwell and Baxter, 2006 and Stewart et al., 2006). Moreover, fairly small eruptions can lead to widespread disruption, damage and economic loss. For example, the 1995/1996 eruptions of Ruapehu volcano in the central North Island of New Zealand were very small by geological standards but still covered over 20,000 km2 of land and caused significant disruption and damage to aviation, communication networks, a hyd ro-electric power scheme, electricity transmission lines, water supply networks, wastewater treatment plants, agriculture and the tourism industry (Cronin et al., 1998 and Johnston et al., 2000). 2.3 ASH CLOUD MODELLING Models have been utilized for decades to forecast ash fall during volcanic eruptions. However, it is only in recent years have tephra models like Ash3D been developed that use a 3-D, time-changing wind field, enabling us to model eruptions that last weeks and spread ash across an entire continent. These features, plus the development of a method for calculating growth of an umbrella cloud, have made it possible to simulate eruptions of this scale. Particles of ash are dispersed into the atmosphere in different directions during an explosive eruption, but the variation differences in altitude, wind speed and direction, and temperature are great influence (Carey and Sparks, 1986). Satellite based identification methods are presently used in monitoring eruptive plumes, but this practice has its limitations such as irregular satellites captures. The use of dispersal models to forecast both the deposition of ash particles on the ground and airborne is one important way of solving such cha llenges (Carey and Sparks, 1986). Observations measured from the ground are used to identify and examine volcanic ash clouds in addition to satellite data. New and evolving volcanic ash clouds have been detected using both specialized and well graded weather radar systems (Schneider et al, 2008). Volcanic Ash Transport and Dispersal models (VATD) are models that are mostly utilized for modelling volcanic ash and are extremely useful when simulating ash particles in order to reduce the risk and hazards posed by volcanic ash. These models are required to provide fairly accurate forecast and location of the volcanic ash and produce hazard maps fast enough to warn pilots of the danger routes (Peterson and Dean 2007). Also volcano observatories and Volcanic Ash Advisory Centres (VAAC) use these models to issue out forecast before, during and slightly after eruptions Generally, volcanic ash cloud models are tools that efficiently combine source input parameters in a short period of time a nd can be used to predict ash dispersion in an emergency situation and can help mitigate the risk and hazards related with such fallout during an eruption 2.4. ASH MODELLING PARAMETERS. Volcanic ash cloud modeling need certain input parameters such as volcano location, date, time and duration of each eruption, source geometry, plume height, eruption rate, vertical ash distribution and particle size distribution. Plume height is simply the altitude at which most volcanic ash spreads laterally from the plume into the ash cloud. The relationship between plume height and eruption rate is possibly the most extensively studied among any sources parameters (Mastin et al., 2009). Theoretical studies (Morton et al., 1956) indicate that plume height should increase with eruption rate and empirical compilations ( Settle, 1978, Wilson et al., 1978 and Sparks et al., 1997, ) roughly follow this relationship. Some characteristic eruption parameters demonstrate extensive systematic relationships. Plume height increases with eruption rate and grain-size generally decreases with increasing silica content. However, not all relationships are systematic. The duration of eruptions may d iminish or differ non-systematically with size of eruption or type of magma. For instance, an average grain size, whilst generally decreasing with increasing silica content, might as well decrease with increasing occurrence of pyroclastic flows (Dartevelle et al., 2002). Inefficiently captured variables such as wind, particle fallout, vent overpressure, or development of hydrometeors, together with atmospheric humidity for bigger eruptions might as well influence this relationship (Mastin et al., 2009). 3. METHODOLOGY For the purpose of this study,Visual Basic for Application (VBA) was used to model the 2014 Mount Mayon volcano eruption ash cloud. Visual Basic for Application (VBA) is basically a software developed in Microsoft Excel and it is used for modelling volcanic ash particles dispersal. Generally, the model is considered to be fairly accurate in modelling volcano eruption. The model requires certain input parameters which are carefully manipulated to predict the likelihood of volcanic ash transport and dispersal. The model starts by defining a dimensional array size called ashfall and calling the parameters from the control panel created in the Excel spreadsheet. The particles are created by giving them an X and Y values, the X and Y values are the coordinates at the chosen location above the vent derived from the satellite imagery of the study area. Together with other input parameters such as wind speed and direction, diffusion coefficient, time and iterations,particles are advected and diffused along the X and Y axis they are then outputted in a second work sheet called ashfall. The code then loops this process as it has been defined by the user, for the purpose of this report the particles were set to a random function. Once the simulation is completed the particle movement in the ash sheet is then plotted on a scatter graph to view the particles and the direction of dispersion. Both worksheets are then saved in MS-DOS comma separated (.csv) file format in Excel to make it possible to import into ArcMap. The satellite image obtained from http//www.landcover.org of the area is then displayed in the ArcMap and the X and Y values from the worksheets are then imported to display the ash. The kernel density function in the analysis tool calculates the density of the dispersed ash cloud. Moreover, time and iteration were considered to give a genuine situation of the ash dispersion. Below is a copy of the code used for simulation of the ash cloud. Sub ashfall() Dim vent_x As Long, vent_y As Long Dim K As Single, vx As Single, vy As Single, dt As Single K = diffusion coefficient dt = change in time Dim max_inter As Long, no_part As Long Dim particles(1 To 1000, 1 To 2) As Single vent_x = Worksheets(Control Panel).Cells(1, 2) vent_y = Worksheets(Control Panel).Cells(2, 2) K = Worksheets(Control Panel).Cells(3, 2) vx = Worksheets(Control Panel).Cells(4, 2) vy = Worksheets(Control Panel).Cells(5, 2) dt = Worksheets(Control Panel).Cells(6, 2) max_iter = Worksheets(Control Panel).Cells(7, 2) Worksheets on right side of = to plug values into code For n = 1 To 1000 particles(n, 1) = vent_x particles(n, 2) = vent_y Next n Offset = 0 so that numbers dont overwrite eachother at each iteration For Iteration = 1 To max_iter add nested loop for iterations this allows all 1000 particles to be moved together in each step max_inter is set as 1000 in Excel For n = 1 To 1000 Rnd = random generation of number between 0 and 1 K = Diffusion Coefficent ash diffusion, where n,1 = x coordinate and n,2 = y coordinate particles(n, 1) = particles(n, 1) + K * (0.5 Rnd()) particles(n, 2) = particles(n, 2) + K * (0.5 Rnd()) ash advection particles(n, 1) = particles(n, 1) + (vx * dt) particles(n, 2) = particles(n, 2) + (vy * dt) Worksheets(Ashfall).Cells(n + Offset, 1) = particles(n, 1) Worksheets(Ashfall).Cells(n + Offset, 2) = particles(n, 2) worksheets on the left hand side of = to plug values in excel worksheet Next n Offset = Offset + 1000 Next Iteration End Sub Input parameters Variables Values Start X Long 574207 Start Y Long 1465622 v x (m/s) Single 6 vy (m/s) Single 9 Diffusion coefficient Single 500 Iterations Integer 1000 Time Integer 10 Table 1: Input parameters, variables and values used for the simulation of ash cloud for Mount Mayon 4. RESULTS OF SIMULATIONS The ash cloud simulation outcomes are portrayed in figures 3 to 7 showing the wind direction, kernel ash density and spatial contours on Open Street map and Satellite map of Mount Mayon. From the simulation, the wind velocity was in the NE direction as it can be seen in the maps. Due the magnitude of the ash cloud, nearby localities are in danger of high risk. Figures 3 and 4 depict the magnitude of the ash cloud in direction of the wind and the impact on the localities on both open street and satellites maps. Also, figure 5 on the other hand shows the levels density of the volcanic ash cloud dispersed in the study area. Regions that far away the volcano ash have minimal density of ash cloud and are not really at risk as compared to regions closer to the volcano ash with high level of density of ash cloud. With the aid of the spatial contour tool, figures 6 and 7 depicts the dispersed and settlement of the ash cloud on satellite map of the study area. Figure 3: Open street map of Mount Mayon showing dispersed ash Figure 4: Satellite map of Mount Mayon showing dispersed ash.    Figure 5: Satellite map of Mount Mayon showing kernel density of dispersed ash Figure 6: Open street map of Mount Mayo showing spatial contour of dispersed ash Figure 7: Satellite map of Mount Mayon showing the spatial contour of dispersed ash 5.1 HAZARD AND RISK IN STUDY AREA The hazard and risk in Mount Mayon cannot be under-estimated since it is one of the active volcano in the Philippines erupting about 53 times in the past 400 years. There have death and displacement of hundreds of thousands of people since it first eruption in 1616. The record violent eruption in 1814 caused death of more than 1,200 people and destroyed several towns. Volcanic flows have caused broad destruction of water supply infrastructure and systems. Water pipes have been destroyed and concealed by lahars around Mayon volcano, Philippines (Nasol, 2001 and Smithsonian Institution, 2002). Chemical pollution of water takes place as tephra particles dissolve readily upon contact with water discharging ions (Witham et al., 2005 and Delmelle et al., 2007). Agricultural activities around Mount Mayon are affected by ash cloud dispersion which reduces crop field hence shortage of food supply. Air planes and other modes of transport are at risk of ash cloud since Legazpi Airport is only 4 2.8km from Mount Mayon. Lahars are possible to destroy vehicles as they move downstream while being influenced by debris (Blong, 1984). Also, tephra particles can cause damage to vehicles by roughening moving parts and obstructing air and oil filters (Wilson et al., 2012b). Figure 9: Hazard map of Mount Mayon ; Source (google maps). Figure 10: Hazard map of Mount Mayon ; Source (google earth). 5.2 EVALUATION OF HAZARD AND RISK IN STUDY AREA. To mitigate the hazards and risks associated with volcano eruption, there must be implementation of policies and disaster control measures must be put in place. Minimizing the effects of volcanic eruptions on the study must be the fundamental objective of ash cloud hazard and risk management. Land-use pressure, population growth and societys expectancy of infrastructure performance during and after disasters makes this a challenge. However, impacts of the 2014 Mount Mayon volcano eruption can by adopting the following strategies; Creating awareness of volcanic risks and hazards and their impacts through communication strategies and educating the general public. This can be achieved through the use of both print media and electronic media. Also, Government must see to it that, projects and policies of building and planning are implemented effectively to eradicate indiscriminate and unauthorized building of houses and other structures in volcano prone areas. Evacuation plans, emergency response and temporary housing should be put in place to minimize the rate of fatalities associated with volcano eruption in the region. There should also be regular monitoring of volcanic eruption of the area by utilizing highly advanced models and high-tech machines as this will help predict upcoming eruption. 6. DETAILED DISCUSSIONS AND CRITICAL EVALUATIONS OF THE MODEL AND SOFTWARE. The Visual Application Software (VBA) software developed from Microsoft Excel is basically easy to understand and quick to run for ash cloud modelling. It is also affordable and very instrumental for predicting the extent of ash cloud transport and dispersion utilizing input parameters according the users preferences. However, the software is is limited to the number of particles that can be modelled at the same time. Also, only one direction of ash cloud is dispersed at a particular time. The accuracy of the model could be improved if input parameters such as plume height and eruption rate are taken into account. When compared with other advanced models such as NAME, FALL3D and PUFF, Visual Application Software (VBA) cannot be used for continuous discharge of ash particles to model full volcano eruption but rather for single release of ash particles. Regardless of its limitations, Visual Application Software (VBA) software is still very useful for modelling ash cloud simulation. 7. CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE WORK. In conclusion, the hazard and risk associated with ash cloud transport and dispersion cannot be under-estimated in Mount Mayon. Therefore, proper planning and strategies must be put in place to mitigate the fatalities of volcano eruption in the future. Although the government responsible for major policies implementation, the general public together with non-governmental agencies must work hand-in-hand to minimize the negative impact of volcano eruption in the region. Despite the model limitations, Visual Application Software (VBA) is very useful tool for modelling volcanic ash cloud simulation. It is also easy to comprehend and fast but if other input parameters added to create a new, it will enhance it accuracy. 8. REFERENCE Baxter, P., Boyle, R., Cole, P., Neri, A., Spence, R., Zuccaro, G. (2005). The impacts of pyroclastic surges on buildings at the eruption of the Soufriere Hills volcano, Montserrat. Bulletin of Volcanology, 67(4), 292-313, available at http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00445-004-0365-7. Baxter, P., Aspinall, W., Neri, A., Zuccaro, G., Spence, R., Cioni, R., Woo, G. (2008). Emergency planning and mitigation at Vesuvius: A new evidence-based approach. Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research, 178(3), 454-473. Blong, 1984 R.J. Blong Volcanic Hazards: A Sourcebook on the Effects of Eruptions Academic Press, Sydney (1984). Blong R (1996) Volcanic hazard risk assessment. In: Scarpa R, Tilling RI (eds) Monitoring and mitigation of volcanic hazards. Springer, Berlin Heidelberg New York, pp675-698. Carey, S., à ¯Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ Sigurdsson, H. (1982). Influence of particle aggregation on deposition of distal tephra from the May 18, 1980, eruption of Mount St. Helens volcano. J. Geophys, Res., 87 (B8), 7061. Cronin et al., 1998 S.J. Cronin, M.J. Hedley, V.J. Neal, G. Smith Agronomic impact of tephra fallout from 1996 and 1996 Ruapehu volcanic eruptions, New Zealand Environmental Geology, 34 (1998), pp. 21-30. Cronin et al., 2003 S.J. Cronin, V.E. Neall, J.A. Lecointre, M.J. Hedley, P. Loganathan Environmental hazards of fluoride in volcanic ash: a case study from Ruapehu volcano, New Zealand Journal of Volcanology Geothermal Research, 121 (2003), pp. 271-291 Dartevelle et al., 2002 S. Dartevelle, G.G.J. Ernst, J. Stix, A. Bernard Origin of the Mount Pinatubo climactic eruption cloud: Implications for volcanic hazards and atmospheric impacts Geology, 30 (7) (2002), pp. 663-666. Delmelle et al., 2007 P. Delmelle, M. Lambert, Y. Dufrà ªne, P. Gerin, N. Óskarsson Gas/aerosol-ash interaction in volcanic plumes: new insights from surface analysis of fine ash particles Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 259 (2007), pp. 159-170. Durant, A.J., 2007. On Water in Volcanic Clouds. Ph.D. Thesis, Michigan Technological University, Houghton, Michigan, 242 pp. Durant, A.J., Rose, W.I., 2009-this volume. Sedimentological constraints on hydro-meteor-enhanced particle deposition: 1992 eruptions of Crater Peak, Alaska.Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research. Durant, A.J., Rose, W.I., Sarna-Wojcicki, A.M., Carey, S., Volentik, A.C., 2009-this volume.Hydrometeor-enhanced tephra sedimentation from the 18 May 1980 Mount St.Helens (USA) volcanic cloud. Journal of Geophysical Research. 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Johnston, D., Stewart, C., Leonard, G., Hoverd, J., Thordarsson, T., Cronin, S., 2004: Impacts of volcanic ash on water supplies in Auckland: Part 1. Institute of Geological and Nuclear Sciences, Lower Hutt, Science Report 2004/25, 83 pp. Langmann, B., Folch, A., Hensch, M. and Matthias, V., 2012. Volcanic ash over Europe during the eruption of Eyjafjallajà ¶kull on Iceland, April-May 2010. Atmospheric Environment, 48, pp.1-8. Mastin, 2002 L.G. Mastin Insights into volcanic conduit flow from an open-source numerical model Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems, 3 (7) (2002) 10.1029 Mastin, 2007 L.G. Mastin A user-friendly one-dimensional model for wet volcanic plumes Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems, 8 (Q03014) (2007) Mastin and Spiegel, in preparation Mastin, L.G., Spiegel, J., Ewert, J. W., Guffanti, M., in review. Spreadsheet of eruption source parameters for active volcanoes of the world, U.S. Geological Survey open-file report. Morton et al., 1956 B.R. Morton, G.I. Taylor, J.S. 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Russel Ward, The Australian Legend - Book Review Essay -- essays resea

When writing the "big picture" histories, historians often overlook or exaggerate certain aspects of Australian history to make their point. Discuss with reference to one the recommended texts. The book "The Australian Legend", written by Russell Ward and published in 1958 speaks mainly of "Australian Identity". It looks at nationalism and what has formed our self-image. There are many aspects that are left overlooked however, as the Authour makes his assumptions. Significant parts of society are neglected consideration, these include those that weren't from the bush, non-British immigrants, the Aboriginal people and women. Also the use of romanticised and exaggerated evidence causes an imbalance in his conclusions. Ward's main reason for writing "The Australian Legend" was to portray the typical Australian's perception of himself. He admitted that the book was not intended to be a history of Australia, and it wasn't. What the narrative does do however, is trace and explore the source of what he referred to as the "national mystique". Ward bases his work on the opinion that the 'Australian spirit' is somehow intimately connected with the bush and that it derives rather from the common folk than from the more respectable sections of society. He treats this assumption methodically, using literary and historical evidence. The majority of the evidence, are extracts taken from the Sydney Bulletin, a paper edited by J.F Archibald. Writers included "the three greatest 'nationalist' writers of the 'nineties", as Ward called them. They were Banjo Paterson, Henry Lawson, and Joseph Furphy. Ward believed that their works were hard fact - a reflection of the emergence of a dist inctively Australian way of life in the outback. This evidence however is rather selective. It appears that Ward has only chosen to include the works that support his version of the 'Australian identity', intentionally leaving out works by the aforementioned writers that gave reference to anyone not fitting his description of 'typical', ie. women, foreigners, aboriginals and city-dwellers. The Australian bush legend, Ward believed, came to its climax in the 1880s. He mentions that it was during this time that the majority of the population were native-born, white males who enjoyed the works of writers such as Paterson and Lawson. It w... ... Although partially true in its time, the Australian bush legend fades more and more as time progresses. The Australian identity of the 1890s was not the same as it was in the 1950s, nor do we have the same self-image today, as portrayed in 'The Australian Legend'. Recent statistics show that we work longer hours and drink far less then we used to. Many more Australians go to the beach than to the bush and despite the iconic male bushman, for most men and women in Australia the beach is far more central to our identity and lives, as the majority of the population lives closer to our coastal shores. 'The Australian Legend', in itself is an acurate portrayal and recount of one part of society, from a specific era, ie. the Australian bushman of the 1890s. Its exaggerations, however, such as the romanticism of the bush ethos by Australian writers, the unbalanced use of evidence, and the neglect to acknowledge the contribution to our national identity from certain sections of society, ie. aboriginal people, city-dwellers, women, and non-British immigrants, render this book to be flawed. For these reasons, it cannot be regarded as a complete and balanced account of Australian history.